Curriculum Connections

Papermaking Investigations
Once your students have practiced the basics of turning trash into artistic treasures, have them share questions they have about the process and ideas they'd like to test out. To prompt their thinking, throw out question stems such as: What if . . .? or How can we. . .? Next, have them discuss or write down how they could test their questions. If the ideas are feasible, let the inquiries begin. For instance, they might try using different types, colors, or ratios of paper for creating pulp; adding different materials to make the paper stronger or smoother; or varying the amount or temperature of water in the pulp or tub. Students should be able to describe and defend their experimental process, results, and conclusions. Consider having groups combine findings and create a brochure, develop a presentation, or teach younger students what they've learned.

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Did you know that thousands of acres of timber are cut to produce just one Sunday edition of a major newspaper? Consider using your papermaking adventures as a springboard for investigating and/or promoting recycling and the potential it holds for reducing the loss of valuable forests. As students seek out paper scraps to turn into pulp, ask them to categorize and quantify the types they find (e.g., junk mail) or places they find them (e.g., offices). They might monitor the volume or weight of paper collected in garbage cans or recycling bins at the school and use their findings to fuel presentations about recycling and reducing paper use.

Older students can find out about efforts to use sources other than trees, such as hemp, for making paper. They can also research some of the environmental issues associated with the paper industry and learn about some of the "environmentally friendly" measures that have been instituted. These include a decrease in the use of chlorinated bleaching agents and an increase in the amount of recycled paper (especially post-consumer paper) used to make new products.

Paper Through the Ages

It's a fascinating tale. Consider having students use the library and Internet to research the history of written communication and papermaking, and/or share some of the following information with them. As they explore, have them consider how human needs and available resources affected the evolution of papermaking, and how the availability of paper and the process of making it affected social and cultural life and the environment. What can they learn about the paper industry in this country today? Following are some historical tidbits.

The Roots of Paper
Clay tablets, it seems, hardly made great stationery. Over the millennia, people tried all kinds of portable writing surfaces ranging from wood to cloth. About 5,000 years ago, ancient Egyptians hit on the idea of layering strips of a wetland plant (papyrus, from which the word paper is derived) and pounding them together to make flat sheets. Although experiments in using fibers to produce writing material likely continued, it wasn't until 105 AD that a Chinese man perfected the process. It seems that the Empress was a book lover, but wanted to find a cheaper material than silk scrolls to print on. The man mixed fibers from the shoots of bamboo, bark of the mulberry tree, and other sources with water to form a pulp that he poured through woven screens. As the water drained through the screen, fibers adhered to the surface and fused into paper.

Literacy Sparks Demand
The Chinese remained the prime papermakers for 500 years, but the craft eventually spread to Japan and across central Asia via caravan routes. Meanwhile, animal skins had been the medium of choice throughout much of Europe, but by the mid-15th century, paper was king. Old rags and clothing (made from plant fibers such as flax, nettle, and hemp) were the main ingredients. But Gutenberg's invention of the first printing press catapulted the demand for paper and the knowledge it could deliver. As literacy and the output of books increased, the supply of good rags plummeted, so the industry turned to using the seemingly endless supply of wood pulp.

Paper Crosses the Ocean
Shortly after the Pilgrims came to America, the first printing press was set up, but paper had to be shipped here from Europe. In 1690, the first paper mill was built in Pennsylvania and within 120 years, there were nearly 200 paper mills in the U.S. Here, rags had become the main ingredient for papermaking, but as they grew scarce, companies experimented with materials such as oat straw, sugar cane waste, and cornstalks. Today, newspapers, boxes, and other low and medium grade papers are made from wood pulp. The finest papers still have a high proportion of linen and cotton rag pulp.

The Science of Cellulose

All plants have cellulose fiber, but some, such as trees, have it in abundance. They contain thickened tracheid, vessel, and fiber cells, which transport water and nutrients up and down the trunk and branches. Because these cells are elongated and overlapping, they remain matted when water is drained off, lending strength to the final paper product. Sawmills grind wood mechanically and add chemicals that draw out these desired cells. This watery suspension comprises the pulp from which paper is processed. The cellulose and water molecules actually form a chain and, when water is drained and pressed out, the cellulose remains chained together to form a solid paper surface.

Trees Measure Up

Since trees are central to the papermaking process and industry, you may want to tie this project into some arboreal investigations. For instance, younger students can carefully observe, draw, and describe trees and their parts: trunks, bark, leaves, and limbs. Leaf and bark rubbings reveal textural details. Teacher Ann Weaver suggests having children observe artistic prints that depict trees. Using selections from Van Gogh, Renoir, and Gauguin, she asks her class to compare and describe the trees—their relative sizes, how each part is portrayed (e.g., as individual leaves vs. masses), and so on.

Consider challenging older students to figure out just where tree growth takes place. (Trees add length from the tips of twigs and rootlets, and they add width when the cambium, which is next to the bark, adds new xylem and phloem cells that carry water and food.) They might mark different spots on twigs, then measure the distances between markers over time. If they observe twigs from the tips down, they'll notice fine lines encircling the twig where the bark color changes. These mark the position of the last terminal bud—the end of last year's growth. (On conifers, a shift in needle color typically signifies new growth.) Students might suggest measuring the circumference of the trunk or branches. (This type of growth may be difficult to quantify in a short period!) If you have access to tree slices or "cookies," students can count and examine annual growth rings.


Copyright© 2002 National Gardening Association